RE: The Naruversity
Nixofcyzerra's ridiculously long tl;dr theory on chakra
Right, as we all know, Chakra is the moulding of the physical energy present in every cell of the body and the spiritual energy gained from exercise and experience. Once moulded, it can be channelled through the chakra circulatory system (CCS,) which is to chakra as the regular circulatory system is to blood, to any of the 361 tenketsu in the body.
The regular circulatory system transports blood around the body. All 4 components of blood, Plasma, Red and White Blood Cells, and Platelets are all produced in Bone Marrow. Interestingly, in children, the marrow of most of the bones produces blood, but in adults, only the marrow of certain bones-the spine, ribs, pelvis, and some others, continues to make blood. We'll come back to that later.
For now, the first comparison I'd like to make between the regular and chakra circulatory systems is that, obviously, the regular circulatory system normally has blood flowing through it at all times. If we take this comparison to the chakra circulatory system, then certain aspects of Naruto become more clear. Under normal conditions, there is at least some chakra flowing through a Naruto character's body at all times, civilian or shinobi. Not just physical or spiritual energy, but chakra. It's normal for their bodies. This explains how sensor-types are capable of detecting ninja even when they aren't moulding chakra for jutsu.
However, one significant difference between the regular circulatory system and the CCS is the Tenkutsu, 361 nodes that that control the flow of chakra like circuit breakers. Now, a circuit breaker is an electrical switch designed to protect an electrical circuit from damage caused by overload or short circuit. Its basic function is to detect a fault condition and automatically interrupt flow of the current. Therefore, it's likely that the intended purpose of the tenketsu is to prevent more chakra than is safe passing through parts of the system. If a larger amount of chakra, more than that part of the system can normally take, is travelling down the arm, for whatever reason, then the excess chakra will be vented out the tenketsu. It also means that the Gentle Fist can shut down chakra flow, or cause what's essentially either an overload or a short circuit in their opponent's CCS.
So if chakra ever needs to be vented out the tenketsu, what's expelled needs to be replenished, just as blood does if someone loses blood through an injury. The human body has a feedback system that tells it when it needs to make new red blood cells. If bodily oxygen levels are low (as they would be if there are too few red blood cells circulating), the kidneys produce a hormone called erythropoietin, which stimulates the stem cells in the bone marrow to produce more red blood cells.
I don't know what the chakra equivalent of bone marrow stem cells would be, but I wouldn't be surprised to learn it's the heart, as the heart is what pumps blood around the regular circulatory system, and it's where Kabuto apparently did something to Naruto that was going to kill him, that couldn't be fixed by his healing factor. The heart is also the location of the Death Gate, which when opened uses up all of the body's energy, so to me it makes sense that the heart is where spiritual and physical energy are mixed, where chakra enters the body. Plus, Sasori and Kakuzu.
Just as humans have no conscious control over our bone marrow (unless you're a Kaguya,) it makes sense that prior to the rise of ninjutsu, the conversion of physical and spiritual energy to chakra was an unconscious bodily reaction. When the chakra in the CCS dropped below a certain point, the body automatically produces some more. This explains how chakra exhaustion can render someone unconscious or dead. when a shinobi's CCS need refilling but their stamina is depleted, their body keeps trying to produce chakra, even to the point where they use up the physical energy that's keeping them alive. It also gives a much more logical explanation for chakra absorbing techniques than the jutsu actually draining physical and spiritual energy. The techniques absorb the chakra present in the CCS, which the victim's body automatically works to refill.
Up until this point, with the exception of my mention of sensors-types, the Gentle Fist, probably chakra exhaustion, and chakra-absorption jutsu, everything I've said applies both to pre-Rikudo Sennin Naruto-verse individuals, and current Naruto-verse civilians. Everyone has the 8 gates after all.
The Sage of the Six Paths apparently discovered the "truth of chakra," and likely the existance of the CCS. After all, with the Rinnegan he could see chakra, including his own, probably much like Sasuke could see foreign chakra color in his own body while fighting Deidara. So the Sot6P discovers this energy within his body, and learns to manipulate it. Perhaps chakra circulatory systems are normally under-utilised by everybody but Shinobi, Samurai and Monks, perhaps his CCS was naturally better/well-defined/robust than others (my preferred theory,) or perhaps he worked to improve the quality of his system. Either way, he discovered a method of essentially Over-clocking his body and taking his life energies and weaponising it, and then taught it to others. Ninjutsu is basically the spiritual equivalent of opening a vein and firing off your blood as a weapon. Hardcore.
If we go all the way back to Ebisu's explanation
here, we'll see that there are 3 factors to using a jutsu: a ninja's stamina, their chakra level, and their control. Chakra levels are the parts of the diagram where they "build up chakra." That must consist of consciously moulding chakra and introducing it into the CCS. The better defined/sturdier your CCS, the more chakra you can build up.
So I imagine an aspect of shinobi training just as important as increasing your stamina and honing your chakra control is working to improve your CCS, to allow you to build up more chakra to fuel more powerful ninjutsu. There's been a bit of fanon around Naruto fanfiction for years, that newborns/infants were chosen as Jinchuuriki because their chakra systems were "elastic" and able to adjust. While this was mostly disproved (Killer B was five,) it remains possible that either children find it easier to develop their CCS, or that it normally improves so slowly that it's best to start young. I mentioned earlier that as children age, many of their bone's bone marrow stops producing blood. If the CCS mirrors this, then perhaps a naruto-verse occupant's CCS "sets" somewhat when they reach a certain age.
It's possible that a superior CCS also plays a part in making you stronger and faster. Odds are Gai's CCS is in excellent condition. You may be able to actively mould chakra to increase your strength and speed even further, as some taijutsu moves that actively use chakra (that aren't nintaijutsu) apparently do exist.
Also, a ninja's CCS likely doesn't constantly contain the maximum possible amount of moulded chakra, and I wouldn't be surpised if their "Chakra Pressure" has a stable medium. Hell, the CCS might even be subject to homeostasis.